16 Marks for DIP - Digital Image Processing for Anna Univ EC2029 Sem Students

Digital Image Processing 16 Marks for All Units

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16 MARKS for Digital Image Processing EC2029

UNIT I

1. Explain the steps involved in digital image processing.
(or)
Explain various functional block of digital image processing
# Image acquisition
# Preprocessing
# Segmentation
# Representation and Description
# Recognition and Interpretation

2. Describe the elements of visual perception.
# Cornea and Sclera
# Choroid – Iris diaphragm and Ciliary body
# Retina- Cones and Rods

3. Describe image formation in the eye with brightness adaptation and
discrimination
# Brightness adaptation
# Subjective brightness
# Weber ratio
#Mach band effect
#simultaneous contrast

4. Write short notes on sampling and quantization.
# Sampling
# Quantization
# Representing Digital Images

5. Describe the functions of elements of digital image processing system
with a diagram.
# Acquisition
# Storage
# Processing
# Communication
# Display

6. Explain the basic relationships between pixels?
# Neighbors of a pixel
# Connectivity, Adjacency, Path

# Distance Measure
# Arithmetic and Logic Operations

7. Explain the properties of 2D Fourier Transform.
# Separability
# Translation
# Periodicity and Conjugate Symmetry
# Rotation
# Distribution and Scaling
# Average Value
# Laplacian
# Convolution and correlation
# Sampling

8. ( i )Explain convolution property in 2D fourier transform.
* 1D Continuous
* 1D Discrete
* 1D convolution theorem
* 2D continuous
* 2D Discrete
* 2D convolution theorem
(ii) Find F (u) and |F (u)|

9. Explain Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) in detail.
# FFT Algorithm
# FFT Implementation

10. Explain in detail the different separable transforms
# Forward 1D DFT & 2D DFT
# Inverse 1D DFT & 2D DFT
# Properties

11. Explain Hadamard transformation in detail.
# 1D DHT
# 1D Inverse DHT
# 2D DHT
# 2D Inverse DHT

12. Discuss the properties and applications of
1)Hadamard transform 2)Hotelling transform
# Properties of hadamard:
Real and orthogonal
fast transform
faster than sine transform
Good energy compaction for image
# Appl:
Image data compression,
filtering and design of course
# Properties of hotelling:
Real and orthogonal
Not a fast transform
Best energy compaction for image
# Appl:
Useful in performance evaluation & for finding performance
Bounds

13. Explain Haar transform in detail.
# Def P= 2P+q-1
# Find h k (z)

14. Explain K-L transform in detail.
Consider a set of n or multi-dimensional discrete signal represented as column
vector x1,x2,…xn each having M elements,
X1
X2
X= .
.
Xn
The mean vector is defined as Mx=E{x}
Where E{x} is the expected value of x. M
For M vector samples mean vector is Mx=1/M _ Xk
K=1
T
The co-variant matrix is, Cx=E{(X-Mx)(X-Mx)}
M T
For M samples, Cx=1/M _ (xk-Mx)(xk-Mx).
K=1
K-L Transform Y= A (X- MX)

UNIT II

1. Explain the types of gray level transformation used for image enhancement.
# Linear (Negative and Identity)
# Logarithmic( Log and Inverse Log)
# Power_law (nth root and nth power)
# Piecewise_linear (Constrast Stretching, Gray level Slicing,
Bit plane Slicing)

2. What is histogram? Explain histogram equalization.
# P(rk) = nk/n
# Ps(s) = 1 means histogram is arranged uniformly.

3. Discuss the image smoothing filter with its model in the spatial domain.
# LPF-blurring
# Median filter – noise reduction & for sharpening image

4. What are image sharpening filters. Explain the various types of it.
# used for highlighting fine details
# HPF-output gets sharpen and background becomes darker
# High boost- output gets sharpen but background remains unchanged
# Derivative- First and Second order derivatives
Appl:
# Medical image
# electronic printing
# industrial inspection

5. Explain spatial filtering in image enhancement.
# Basics
# Smoothing filters
# Sharpening filters

6. Explain image enhancement in the frequency domain.
# Smoothing filters
# Sharpening filters
# Homomorphic filtering

7. Explain Homomorphic filtering in detail.
# f(x, y) = i(x, y) . r(x, y)
# Calculate the enhanced image g(x,y)

UNIT III

1. Explain the algebra approach in image restoration.
# Unconstrained
# Constrained

2. What is the use of wiener filter in image restoration. Explain.
# Calculate f^
# Calculate F^(u, v)

3. What is meant by Inverse filtering? Explain.
# Recovering i/p from its o/p
# Calculate f^(x, y)

4. Explain singular value decomposition and specify its properties.
# U= m=1_r___m _m
T
This equation is called as singular value decomposition of an image.
# Properties
The SVD transform varies drastically from image to image.
The SVD transform gives best energy packing efficiency for any given

image.
The SVD transform is useful in the design of filters finding least
square,minimum solution of linear equation and finding rank of large
matrices.

5. Explain image degradation model /restoration process in detail.
# Image degradation model /restoration process diagram
# Degradation model for Continuous function
# Degradation model for Discrete function – 1_D and 2_D
6. What are the two approaches for blind image restoration? Explain in detail.
_ Direct measurement
_ Indirect estimation

UNIT IV

1. What is data redundancy? Explain three basic data redundancy?
Definition of data redundancy
The 3 basic data redundancy are
_ Coding redundancy
_ Interpixel redundancy
_ Psycho visual redundancy

2. What is image compression? Explain any four variable length coding
compression schemes.
Definition of image compression
Variable Length Coding
* Huffman coding
* B2 Code
* Huffman shift
* Huffman Truncated
* Binary Shift
*Arithmetic coding

3. Explain about Image compression model?
The source Encoder and Decoder
The channel Encoder and Decoder

4. Explain about Error free Compression?
a. Variable Length coding
i. Huffman coding
ii. Arithmetic coding
b. LZW coding
c. Bit Plane coding
d. Lossless Predictive coding

5. Explain about Lossy compression?
Lossy predictive coding
Transform coding
Wavelet coding

6. Explain the schematics of image compression standard JPEG.
Lossy baseline coding system
Extended coding system
Lossless Independent coding system

7. Explain how compression is achieved in transform coding and explain about DCT
_ Block diagram of encoder
_ decoder
_ Bit allocation
_ 1D transform coding
_ 2D transform coding, application
_ 1D,2D DCT

8. Explain arithmetic coding
_ Non-block code
_ One example

9. Explain about Image compression standards?
_ Binary Image compression standards
_ Continuous tone still Image compression standards
_ Video compression standards

10. Discuss about MPEG standard and compare with JPEG
_ Motion Picture Experts Group
1. MPEG-1
2. MPEG-2
3. MPEG-4
_ Block diagram
_ I-frame
_ p-frame
_ B-frame

UNIT V

1. What is image segmentation. Explain in detail.
Definition - image segmentation
Discontinity – Point, Line, Edge
Similarity – Thresholding, Region Growing, Splitting and
Merging

2. Explain Edge Detection in details?
* Basic formation.
* Gradient Operators
* Laplacian Operators

3. Define Thresholding and explain the various methods of thresholding in detail?
Foundation
The role of illumination
Basic adaptive thresholding
Basic adaptive thresholding
Optimal global & adaptive thresholding.

4. Discuss about region based image segmentation techniques. Compare
threshold region based techniques.
* Region Growing
* Region splitting and merging
* Comparison

5. Define and explain the various representation approaches?
chain codes
Polygon approximations
Signature
Boundary segments
Skeletons.

6. Explain Boundary descriptors.
Simple descriptors.
Fourier descriptors.

7. Explain regional descriptors
Simple descriptors
Texture
i. Statistical approach
ii. Structural approach
iii. Spectral approach

8. Explain the two techniques of region representation.
_ Chain codes
_ Polygonol approximation

9. Explain the segmentation techniques that are based on finding the regions
directly.
_ Edge detection line detection
_ Region growing
_ Region splitting
_ region merging

10. How is line detected? Explain through the operators
_ Types of line masks
1. horizontal
2. vertical
3. +45°,-45°

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Unit 5 Digital Image Processing - Ec2029 Two Mark Question and Answers for Anna Univ Sem

DIP Two Mark Question and Answers for Unit 5
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UNIT V

1. What is segmentation?
Segmentation subdivides on image in to its constitute regions or objects. The level
to which the subdivides is carried depends on the problem being solved .That is
segmentation should when the objects of interest in application have been isolated.

2. Write the applications of segmentation.
* Detection of isolated points.
* Detection of lines and edges in an image.

3. What are the three types of discontinuity in digital image?
Points, lines and edges.
4. How the derivatives are obtained in edge detection during formulation?
The first derivative at any point in an image is obtained by using the magnitude of
the gradient at that point. Similarly the second derivatives are obtained by using the laplacian.

5. Write about linking edge points.
The approach for linking edge points is to analyze the characteristics of pixels in a
small neighborhood (3x3 or 5x5) about every point (x,y)in an image that has undergone edge detection. All points that are similar are linked, forming a boundary of pixels that share some common properties.

6. What are the two properties used for establishing similarity of edge pixels?
(1) The strength of the response of the gradient operator used to produce the edge
pixel.
(2) The direction of the gradient.

7. What is edge?
An edge isa set of connected pixels that lie on the boundary between two regions
edges are more closely modeled as having a ramplike profile. The slope of the ramp is inversely proportional to the degree of blurring in the edge.

8. Give the properties of the second derivative around an edge?
* The sign of the second derivative can be used to determine whether an edge
pixel lies on the dark or light side of an edge.
* It produces two values for every edge in an image.
* An imaginary straightline joining the extreme positive and negative values of
the second derivative would cross zero near the midpoint of the edge.

9. Define Gradient Operator?
First order derivatives of a digital image are based on various approximation of
the 2-D gradient. The gradient of an image f(x,y) at location(x,y) is defined as the
vector
Magnitude of the vector is
_f=mag( _f )=[Gx2+ Gy2]1/2
_(x,y)=tan-1(Gy/Gx)
_(x,y) is the direction angle of vector _f
10. What is meant by object point and background point?
To execute the objects from the background is to select a threshold T that separate these modes. Then any point (x,y) for which f(x,y)>T is called an object point. Otherwise the point is called background point.

11. What is global, Local and dynamic or adaptive threshold?
When Threshold T depends only on f(x,y) then the threshold is called global . If T
depends both on f(x,y) and p(x,y) is called local. If T depends on the spatial coordinates x and y the threshold is called dynamic or adaptive where f(x,y) is the original image.

12. Define region growing?
Region growing is a procedure that groups pixels or subregions in to layer regions based on predefined criteria. The basic approach is to start with a set of seed points and from there grow regions by appending to each seed these neighbouring pixels that have properties similar to the seed.

13. Specify the steps involved in splitting and merging?
Split into 4 disjoint quadrants any region Ri for which P(Ri)=FALSE.
Merge any adjacent regions Rj and Rk for which P(RjURk)=TRUE.
Stop when no further merging or splitting is positive.

14. What is meant by markers?
An approach used to control over segmentation is based on markers.
marker is a connected component belonging to an image. We have internal markers, associated with objects of interest and external markers associated with background.

15. What are the 2 principles steps involved in marker selection?
The two steps are
1. Preprocessing
2. Definition of a set of criteria that markers must satisfy.
]

16. Define chain codes?
Chain codes are used to represent a boundary by a connected sequence of
straight line segment of specified length and direction. Typically this representation is based on 4 or 8 connectivity of the segments . The direction of each segment is coded by using a numbering scheme.


17. What are the demerits of chain code?
* The resulting chain code tends to be quite long.
* Any small disturbance along the boundary due to noise cause changes in the code
that may not be related to the shape of the boundary.

18. What is thinning or skeletonizing algorithm?
An important approach to represent the structural shape of a plane region is to
reduce it to a graph. This reduction may be accomplished by obtaining the
skeletonizing algorithm. It play a central role in a broad range of problems in image
processing, ranging from automated inspection of printed circuit boards to counting
of asbestos fibres in air filter.

19. Specify the various image representation approaches
Chain codes
Polygonal approximation
Boundary segments

20. What is polygonal approximation method ?
Polygonal approximation is a image representation approach in which a digital
boundary can be approximated with arbitary accuracy by a polygon.For a closed curve the approximation is exact when the number of segments in polygon is equal to the number of points in the boundary so that each pair of adjacent points defines a segment in the polygon.

21. Specify the various polygonal approximation methods
Minimum perimeter polygons
Merging techniques
Splitting techniques

22. Name few boundary descriptors
Simple descriptors
Shape numbers
Fourier descriptors

23. Give the formula for diameter of boundary
The diameter of a boundary B is defined as
Diam(B)=max[D(pi,pj)]
i,j
D-distance measure
pi,pj-points on the boundary

24. Define length of a boundary.
The length of a boundary is the number of pixels along a boundary.Eg.for a chain
coded curve with unit spacing in both directions the number of vertical and horizontal components plus _2 times the number of diagonal components gives its exact length.

25. Define eccentricity and curvature of boundary
Eccentricity of boundary is the ratio of the major axis to minor axis.

Curvature is the rate of change of slope.

26. Define shape numbers
Shape number is defined as the first difference of smallest magnitude. The order n of a shape number is the number of digits in its representation.

27. Describe Fourier descriptors
Fourier descriptor of a boundary can be defined as
K-1
a(u)=1/K_s(k)e-j2_uk/K
k=0
for u=0,1,2……K-1.The complex coefficients a(u) are called Fourier descriptor
of a boundary.
The inverse Fourier descriptor is
K-1
s(k)= _ a(u)ej2_uk/K
u=0
for k=0,1,2,……K-1

28. Give the Fourier descriptors for the following transformations
(1)Identity (2)Rotation (3)Translation (4)Scaling (5)Starting point
(1)Identity – a(u)
(2)Rotation -ar(u)= a(u)ej_
(3) Translation-at(u)=a(u)+_xy_(u)
(4)Scaling-as(u)=_a(u)
(5)Starting point-ap(u)=a(u)e-j2_uk
0
/K

29. Specify the types of regional descriptors
Simple descriptors
Texture

30. Name few measures used as simple descriptors in region descriptors
Area
Perimeter
Compactness
Mean and median of gray levels
Minimum and maximum of gray levels
Number of pixels with values above and below mean


31. Define compactness
Compactness of a region is defined as (perimeter)^2/area.It is a
dimensionless quantity and is insensitive to uniform scale changes.

32. Describe texture
Texture is one of the regional descriptors. It provides measures of
properties such as smoothness, coarseness and regularity. There are 3 approaches used to
describe texture of a region.
They are:
Statistical
Structural
Spectral

33. Describe statistical approach
Statistical approaches describe smooth,coarse,grainy characteristics of
texture.This is the simplest one compared to others.It describes texture using statistical moments of the gray-level histogram of an image or region.

34. Define gray-level co-occurrence matrix.
A matrix C is formed by dividing every element of A by n(A is a k x k
matrix and n is the total number of point pairs in the image satisfying P(position
operator). The matrix C is called gray-level co-occurrence matrix if C depends on P,the presence of given texture patterns may be detected by choosing an appropriate position operator.

35. Explain structural and spectral approach
Structural approach deals with the arrangement of image primitives such as
description of texture based on regularly spaced parallel lines.
Spectral approach is based on properties of the Fourier spectrum and are primarily
to detect global periodicity in an image by identifying high energy, narrow peaks in
spectrum.There are 3 features of Fourier spectrum that are useful for texture description.
They are:
Prominent peaks in spectrum gives the principal direction of texture patterns.
The location of peaks in frequency plane gives fundamental spatial period of
patterns.
Eliminating any periodic components by our filtering leaves non- periodic
image elements.

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Unit 4 Digital Image Processing - Image Segmentation Two Marks Question and Answers for Anna Univ EC2029

Unit 4 DIP Questions and Answers
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* Unit 1 Two Marks & Answers
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* Unit 3 Two Marks & Answers

* 16 Marks for All 5 Units

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UNIT IV IMAGE SEGMENTATION

1. What is image compression?
Image compression refers to the process of redundancy amount of data required to
represent the given quantity of information for digital image. The basis of reduction
process is removal of redundant data.

2. What is Data Compression?
Data compression requires the identification and extraction of source redundancy.
In other words, data compression seeks to reduce the number of bits used to store or transmit information.

3. What are two main types of Data compression?
Lossless compression can recover the exact original data after compression. It is
used mainly for compressing database records, spreadsheets or word processing
files, where exact replication of the original is essential.
Lossy compression will result in a certain loss of accuracy in exchange for a
substantial increase in compression. Lossy compression is more effective when
used to compress graphic images and digitised voice where losses outside visual
or aural perception can be tolerated.

4. What is the need for Compression?
In terms of storage, the capacity of a storage device can be effectively increased with methods that compress a body of data on its way to a storage device and decompresses it when it is retrieved.
In terms of communications, the bandwidth of a digital communication link can be
effectively increased by compressing data at the sending end and decompressing data at the receiving end.
At any given time, the ability of the Internet to transfer data is fixed. Thus, if data can effectively be compressed wherever possible, significant improvements of data
throughput can be achieved. Many files can be combined into one compressed document making sending easier.

5. What are different Compression Methods?

Run Length Encoding (RLE)
Arithmetic coding
Huffman coding and
Transform coding

6. Define is coding redundancy?
If the gray level of an image is coded in a way that uses more code words than
necessary to represent each gray level, then the resulting image is said to contain coding redundancy.

7. Define interpixel redundancy?
The value of any given pixel can be predicted from the values of its neighbors.
The information carried by is small. Therefore the visual contribution of a single pixel to an image is redundant. Otherwise called as spatial redundant geometric redundant or

8. What is run length coding?
Run-length Encoding, or RLE is a technique used to reduce the size of a repeating
string of characters. This repeating string is called a run; typically RLE encodes a run of symbols into two bytes, a count and a symbol. RLE can compress any type of data regardless of its information content, but the content of data to be compressed affects the compression ratio. Compression is normally measured with the compression ratio:

9. Define compression ratio.
Compression Ratio = original size / compressed size: 1

10. Define psycho visual redundancy?
In normal visual processing certain information has less importance than other
information. So this information is said to be psycho visual redundant.

11. Define encoder
Source encoder is responsible for removing the coding and interpixel redundancy
and psycho visual redundancy.
There are two components
A) Source Encoder
B) Channel Encoder

12. Define source encoder
Source encoder performs three operations
1) Mapper -this transforms the input data into non-visual format. It reduces the
interpixel redundancy.
2) Quantizer - It reduces the psycho visual redundancy of the input images .This
step is omitted if the system is error free.
3) Symbol encoder- This reduces the coding redundancy .This is the final stage of
encoding process.

13. Define channel encoder
The channel encoder reduces reduces the impact of the channel noise by inserting
DEPARTMENT OF ECE, ADHIPARASAKTHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, KALAVAI.
EC2029 DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING
redundant bits into the source encoded data.
Eg: Hamming code

14. What are the types of decoder?
Source decoder- has two components
a) Symbol decoder- This performs inverse operation of symbol encoder.
b) Inverse mapping- This performs inverse operation of mapper.
Channel decoder-this is omitted if the system is error free.

15. What are the operations performed by error free compression?
1) Devising an alternative representation of the image in which its interpixel
redundant are reduced.
2) Coding the representation to eliminate coding redundancy

16. What is Variable Length Coding?
Variable Length Coding is the simplest approach to error free compression. It
reduces only the coding redundancy. It assigns the shortest possible codeword to the most probable gray levels.

17. Define Huffman coding
Huffman coding is a popular technique for removing coding redundancy.
When coding the symbols of an information source the Huffman code
yields the smallest possible number of code words, code symbols per
source symbol.

18. Define Block code
Each source symbol is mapped into fixed sequence of code symbols or code
words. So it is called as block code.

19. Define instantaneous code
A code word that is not a prefix of any other code word is called instantaneous or
prefix codeword.

20. Define uniquely decodable code
A code word that is not a combination of any other codeword is said to be
uniquely decodable code.

21. Define B2 code
Each code word is made up of continuation bit c and information bit which are
binary numbers. This is called B2 code or B code. This is called B2 code because two information bits are used for continuation bits

22. Define the procedure for Huffman shift
List all the source symbols along with its probabilities in descending order.
Divide the total number of symbols into block of equal size. Sum the probabilities of all the source symbols outside the reference block. Now apply the procedure for
reference block, including the prefix source symbol. The code words for the remaining symbols can be constructed by means of one or more prefix code followed by the reference block as in the case of binary shift code.

23. Define arithmetic coding
In arithmetic coding one to one corresponds between source symbols and code
word doesn’t exist where as the single arithmetic code word assigned for a sequence of source symbols. A code word defines an interval of number between 0 and 1.
24. What is bit plane Decomposition?
An effective technique for reducing an image’s interpixel redundancies is to
process the image’s bit plane individually. This technique is based on the concept of
decomposing multilevel images into a series of binary images and compressing each binary image via one of several well-known binary compression methods.
25. What are three categories of constant area coding?
The three categories of constant area coding are
All white
All black
Mixed intensity.
The most probable or frequency occurring is assign a 1 bit code ‘0’, other two
categories area assigned as 2 bit code ‘10’ and ‘11’
27. How effectiveness of quantization can be improved?
Introducing an enlarged quantization interval around zero, called a dead
zero.
Adapting the size of the quantization intervals from scale to scale. In
either case, the selected quantization intervals must be transmitted to the
decoder with the encoded image bit stream.
28. What are the coding systems in JPEG?
1. A lossy baseline coding system, which is based on the DCT and is
adequate for most compression application.
2. An extended coding system for greater compression, higher
precision or progressive reconstruction applications.
3. a lossless independent coding system for reversible compression.
29. What is JPEG?
The acronym is expanded as "Joint Photographic Expert Group". It is an
international standard in 1992. It perfectly Works with color and grayscale images, Many applications e.g., satellite, medical,...
30. What are the basic steps in JPEG?
The Major Steps in JPEG Coding involve:
_ DCT (Discrete Cosine Transformation)
_ Quantization
_ Zigzag Scan
DEPARTMENT OF ECE, ADHIPARASAKTHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, KALAVAI.
EC2029 DIGITAL IMAGE PROCESSING
_ DPCM on DC component
_ RLE on AC Components
_ Entropy Coding
31. What is MPEG?
The acronym is expanded as "Moving Picture Expert Group". It is an international
standard in 1992. It perfectly Works with video and also used in teleconferencing
Input image Wavelet transform Quantizer Symbol
encoder
Symbol
decoder
Inverse wavelet
transform
Compressed
image
Compressed image
Decompressed
Image
32. Draw the JPEG Encoder.
33. Draw the JPEG Decoder.
34. What is zig zag sequence?
The purpose of the Zig-zag Scan:
_ To group low frequency coefficients in top of vector.
_ Maps 8 x 8 to a 1 x 64 vector
35. Define I-frame
I-frame is Intraframe or Independent frame. An I-frame is compressed
independently of all frames. It resembles a JPEG encoded image. It is the reference point for the motion estimation needed to generate subsequent P and P-frame.
36. Define P-frame
P-frame is called predictive frame. A P-frame is the compressed difference
between the current frame and a prediction of it based on the previous I or P-frame
37. Define B-frame
B-frame is the bidirectional frame. A B-frame is the compressed difference
between the current frame and a prediction of it based on the previous I or P-frame or next P-frame. Accordingly the decoder must have access to both past and future reference frames.

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Unit 3 Digital Image Processing Questions with Answers for Ec2029 - Anna University Students

DIP ( Digital Image Processing )Unit 3 Question and answers for Anna Univ Students.

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>Unit 1 Two Mark Question and Answers
>Unit 2 Two Mark Question and Answers

*16 marks for All 5 Units
UNIT III IMAGE RESTORATION

1. What is meant by Image Restoration?
Restoration attempts to reconstruct or recover an image that has been degraded by
using a clear knowledge of the degrading phenomenon.

2. What are the two properties in Linear Operator?
 Additivity
_ Homogenity

3. Explain additivity property in Linear Operator?
H[f1(x,y)+f2(x,y)]=H[f1(x,y)]+H[f2(x,y)]
The additive property says that if H is the linear operator,the response to a
sum of two is equal to the sum of the two responses.

4. How a degradation process is modeled?
A system operator H, which together with an additive white noise term _(x,y) a
operates on an input image f(x,y) to produce a degraded image g(x,y).

5. Explain homogenity property in Linear Operator?
H[k1f1(x,y)]=k1 H[f1(x,y)]
The homogeneity property says that,the response to a constant multiple of
any input is equal to the response to that input multiplied by the same constant.

6. Give the relation for degradation model for continuous function?
g(x,y) =-____f(_,_)§(x-_,y-_).d_d_+_(x,y)

7. What is fredholm integral of first kind?
g(x,y) = __f(_,_)h(x,_,y,_)d_ d_
which is called the superposition or convolution or fredholm integral of first kind. It
states that if the response of H to an impulse is known, the response to any input f(_,_)
can be calculated by means of fredholm integral.

8. Define circulant matrix?
A square matrix, in which each row is a circular shift of the preceding row and the
first row is a circular shift of the last row, is called circulant matrix.
he(o) he(M-1) he(M-2)………… he(1)
he(1) he(0) he(M-1)………. he(2)
He = ..
he(M-1) he(M-2) he(M-3)………. he(0)
g(x,y)
_(x,y)
H
f(x,y)

9. What is concept algebraic approach?
The concept of algebraic approach is to estimate the original image which
minimizes a predefined criterion of performances.

10. What are the two methods of algebraic approach?
o Unconstraint restoration approach
o Constraint restoration approach

11. Define Gray-level interpolation?
Gray-level interpolation deals with the assignment of gray levels to pixels
in the spatially transformed image

12. What is meant by Noise probability density function?
The spatial noise descriptor is the statistical behavior of gray level values in the
noise component of the model.

13. Why the restoration is called as unconstrained restoration?
In the absence of any knowledge about the noise ‘n’, a meaningful criterion
function is to seek an f^ such that H f^ approximates of in a least square sense by
assuming the noise term is as small as possible.
Where H = system operator.
f^ = estimated input image.
g = degraded image.

14. Which is the most frequent method to overcome the difficulty to formulate the
spatial relocation of pixels?
The point is the most frequent method, which are subsets of pixels whose location
in the input (distorted) and output (corrected) imaged is known precisely.

15. What are the three methods of estimating the degradation function?
1. Observation
2. Experimentation
3. Mathematical modeling.

16. What are the types of noise models?
 Guassian noise
 Rayleigh noise
 Erlang noise
 Exponential noise
 Uniform noise
_ Impulse noise

17. Give the relation for guassian noise?
Guassian noise:
The PDF guassian random variable Z is given by
P(Z)=e-(Z-μ)2/2_2/_2__
Z->Gray level value
_->standard deviation
_2->varianze of Z
μ->mean of the graylevel value Z

18. Give the relation for rayleigh noise?
Rayleigh noise:
The PDF is
P(Z)= 2(z-a)e-(z—a)2/b/b for Z>=a
0 for Z=0
0 for Z<0 mean μ=b/a standard deviation _2=b/a2

20. Give the relation for Exponential noise?
Exponential noise The PDF is P(Z)= ae-az Z>=0
0 Z<0 mean μ=1/a standard deviation _2=1/a2

21. Give the relation for Uniform noise?
Uniform noise: The PDF is P(Z)=1/(b-a) if a<=Z<=b 0 otherwise mean μ=a+b/2 standard deviation _2=(b-a)2/12

22. Give the relation for Impulse noise? Impulse noise: The PDF is P(Z) =Pa for z=a Pb for z=b 0 Otherwise

23. What is inverse filtering?
The simplest approach to restoration is direct inverse filtering, an estimate F^(u,v) of the transform of the original image simply by dividing the transform of the degraded image G^(u,v) by the degradation function. F^ (u,v) = G^(u,v)/H(u,v)

24. What is pseudo inverse filter?
It is the stabilized version of the inverse filter.For a linear shift invariant system with frequency response H(u,v) the pseudo inverse filter is defined as H-(u,v)=1/(H(u,v) H=/0 0 H=0

25. What is meant by least mean square filter?
The limitation of inverse and pseudo inverse filter is very sensitive noise.The wiener filtering is a method of restoring images in the presence of blurr as well as noise.

26. Give the equation for singular value decomposition of an image?

U= m=1_r___m _m T This equation is called as singular value decomposition of an image.

27. Write the properties of Singular value Decomposition(SVD)?
 The SVD transform varies drastically from image to image.  The SVD transform gives best energy packing efficiency for any given image.  The SVD transform is useful in the design of filters finding least square,minimum solution of linear equation and finding rank of large matrices.

28. What is meant by blind image restoration?

An information about the degradation must be extracted from the observed image either explicitly or implicitly.This task is called as blind image restoration.

29. What are the two approaches for blind image restoration?
 Direct measurement _ Indirect estimation

30. What is meant by Direct measurement?
In direct measurement the blur impulse response and noise levels are first estimated from an observed image where this parameter are utilized in the restoration.

31. What is blur impulse response and noise levels?
Blur impulse response: This parameter is measured by isolating an image of a suspected object within a picture. Noise levels: The noise of an observed image can be estimated by measuring the image covariance over a region of constant background luminence.

32. What is meant by indirect estimation?
Indirect estimation method employ temporal or spatial averaging to either obtain a restoration or to obtain key elements of an image restoration algorithm.

33. Give the difference between Enhancement and Restoration?
Enhancement technique is based primarily on the pleasing aspects it might present to the viewer. For example: Contrast Stretching. Where as Removal of image blur by applying a deblurrings function is considered a restoration technique.

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EC2029 Digital Image Processing Two Marks with Answers for Unit 2 Image Enhancement - Anna Univ Questions

Two Marks for DIP Unit- 2
Code:EC2029
Subject: Digital Image Processing

Get Unit 1 Two Marl Questions with Answers here .
 * 16 Marks for All 5 Units
For Unit 3,4,and 5 follow this post.If you are in need of any help,feel free to ask it via comments.Also don't forgot to share this post to facebook,twitter.
Digital Image Processing.

UNIT II

1. Specify the objective of image enhancement technique.
The objective of enhancement technique is to process an image so that the result
is more suitable than the original image for a particular application.

2. Explain the 2 categories of image enhancement.
i) Spatial domain refers to image plane itself & approaches in this
category are based on direct manipulation of picture image.
ii) Frequency domain methods based on modifying the image by fourier
transform.

3. What is contrast stretching?
Contrast stretching reduces an image of higher contrast than the original by darkening the levels below m and brightening the levels above m in the image.

4. What is grey level slicing?
Highlighting a specific range of grey levels in an image often is desired. Applications
include enhancing features such as masses of water in satellite imagery and enhancing flaws in x-ray images.

5. Define image subtraction.
The difference between 2 images f(x,y) and h(x,y) expressed as,
g(x,y)=f(x,y)-h(x,y) is obtained by computing the difference between all pairs of corresponding pixels from f and h.

6. What is the purpose of image averaging?
An important application of image averagingis in the field of astronomy, where
imaging with very low light levels is routine, causing sensor noise frequently to
render single images virtually useless for analysis.

7. What is meant by masking?
Mask is the small 2-D array in which the values of mask co-efficient determines the
nature of process.
The enhancement technique based on this type of approach is referred to as
mask processing.

8. Give the formula for negative and log transformation.
Negative: S=L-1-r
Log: S = c log(1+r)
Where c-constant and r 0

9. What is meant by bit plane slicing?
Instead of highlighting gray level ranges, highlighting the contribution made to
total image appearance by specific bits might be desired. Suppose that each pixel in
an image is represented by 8 bits. Imagine that the image is composed of eight 1-bit planes, ranging from bit plane 0 for LSB to bit plane-7 for MSB.

10. Define histogram.
The histogram of a digital image with gray levels in the range [0, L-1] is a
discrete function h(rk)=nk.
rk-kth gray level nk-number of pixels in the image having gray level rk.

11. What is meant by histogram equalization?
k k
Sk= T(rk) = _ Pr(rj) = _ nj/n where k=0,1,2,….L-1
j=0 j=0
This transformation is called histogram equalization.

12. Differentiate linear spatial filter and non-linear spatial filter.
s.no. Linear spatial filter Non-linear spatial filter
1.
2.
Response is a sum of products of
the filter co-efficient.
R = w(-1,-1) f(x-1,y-1) +
w(-1,0) f(x-1,y) + … +
w(0,0) f(x,y) + … +
w(1,0) f(x+1,y) +
w(1,1) f(x+1,y+1).
They do not explicitly use coefficients
in the sum-of-products.
R = w1z1 + w2z2 + … +w9z9
9
= _ wizi
i=1

13. Give the mask used for high boost filtering.
-1 -1 -1
-1 A+8 -1
-1 -1 -1
0 -1 0
-1 A+4 -1
0 -1 0

14. What is meant by laplacian filter?
The laplacian for a function f(x,y) of 2 variables is defined as,
2 2 2 2 2
f = _ f / _ x + _ f / _ y

15. Write the steps involved in frequency domain filtering.
x+y

1. Multiply the input image by (-1) to center the transform.
2. Compute F(u,v), the DFT of the image from (1).
3. Multiply F(u,v) by a filter function H(u,v).
4. Compute the inverse DFT of the result in (3).
5. Obtain the real part of the result in (4).
x+y
6. Multiply the result in (5) by (-1)

16. Give the formula for transform function of a Butterworth low pass filter.
The transfer function of a Butterworth low pass filter of order n and with cut off
frequency at a distance D0 from the origin is,
2n
H(u,v) = 1 / 1 + [ D(u,v) / D0 ]
2 2 1/2
Where D(u,v) = [(u – M/2) + (v-N/2) ]

17. What do you mean by Point processing?
Image enhancement at any Point in an image depends only on the gray level at
that point is often referred to as Point processing.

18. What is Image Negatives?
The negative of an image with gray levels in the range [0, L-1] is obtained by
using the negative transformation, which is given by the expression.
s = L-1-r
Where s is output pixel
r is input pixel

19. Define Derivative filter?
For a function f (x, y), the gradient f at co-ordinate (x, y) is defined as the vector
_f = _f/_x
_f/_y
_f = mag (_f) = {[(_f/_x) 2 +(_f/_y) 2 ]} ½

20. Explain spatial filtering?
Spatial filtering is the process of moving the filter mask from point to point in an
image. For linear spatial filter, the response is given by a sum of products of the filter coefficients, and the corresponding image pixels in the area spanned by the filter mask.

21. What is a Median filter?
The median filter replaces the value of a pixel by the median of the gray levels in
the neighborhood of that pixel.

22. What is maximum filter and minimum filter?
The 100th percentile is maximum filter is used in finding brightest points in an
image. The 0th percentile filter is minimum filter used for finding darkest points in an image.

23. Write the application of sharpening filters?
1. Electronic printing and medical imaging to industrial application
2. Autonomous target detection in smart weapons.

24. Name the different types of derivative filters?
1. Perwitt operators
2. Roberts cross gradient operators
3. Sobel operators

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Important Questions for 141302 Analog and Digital Communication,3rd Sem of CSE students - Anna Univ of Technology Nov/Dec 2011

For Anna University of Technology ,Computer Science Engg Students,here are the important questions for the subject ADC.
Get Analog and Digital Communication faq questions from each units,prepare well and do well.

Code:141302
Subject : Analog and Digital Comm .
Second Year Third Semester -For CSE Students

141302 - Analog and digital Communication

UNIT I

1. Explain how Carson’s rule of bandwidth in FM is obtained. For an FM modulator with peak frequency deviation f=5 kHz modulating frequency fm=5kHz, with amplitude of carrier 5V and frequency 500 kHz, determine the bandwidth using Carson’s rule

2. Derive an expression for a single tone FM signal and draw its frequency spectrum.

3. Define amplitude modulation. Drive the relation between the total transmitted power and carrier power in an AM system when several frequencies simultaneously modulated acarrier.

4. Define FM and PM modulation, derive their equations.

5. In angle modulation, explain frequency devation, percent modulation, phase deviation and modulation index with suitable example.


UNIT II

1. Explain with neat diagrams the FSK technique, transmitter and receiver blocks
2. With neat diagram explain the generation of a DPSK signal and recovering the data from
the DPSK signal
3. Explain quadrature amplitude modulation with the help of relevant diagrams.
4. Discuss the QPSK transmission system with relevant diagrams.

UNIT III

1. Explain PCM and differential PCM with the help of block diagrams.
2. Explain the basic principle of quantization and quantization error
3. What are the drawbacks of delta modulation and how are they overcome in adaptive delta
modulation? explain with the help of a neat block diagram
4. Describe DPCM transmitter and receiver with suitable block diagram.


UNIT IV
1. Explain the detail about the parallel interface with control signals and timing information
2. Explain the different types of data transmission
3. How are errors detected and corrected in data communication?
4. Discuss the following : Synchronous modem , Asynchronous modem ,Low speed modem ,medium and high speed modem

UNIT V
1. Explain fast and slow frequency hopping techniques used in spread spectrum.
2. With help of neat block diagram, explain DS spread spectrum system with coherent binary PSK
3. Compare TDMA,FDMA CSMA multiple access techniques.
4. Explain the working of multi pulse excited LPC and code excited LPC by suitable Diagrams
5. For a linear feedback shift register with three stages (m=3),evaluate the maximum length PN sequence for feedback taps =(3,1).Draw the schematic arrangement and verify all the properties of PN sequence in generated output. Sketch the sequence, its autocorrelation function and PSD function if chip rate is 10MHz.

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Unit 4 Electronics Device and Circuits two mark questions of Anna University -questions

Anna UNiversity EDC Two marks
This post may be useful for ECE (Electronics and Communication Engineering ) students of Anna Univ and its affiliated colleges.Based on students request ,and our own ideas ,we've been sharing this and like to provide all needy materials for students here at StudentsIdea.Please support us by sharing this posts and links to your friends @facebook ,@Twitter ,@google+ and subscribe for Email Alerts.

Two marks for EDC UNIT-4 | Unit 5 is here

Define Barkhausen Criteria
What is Differential Amplifier?
Define CMRR.
What are the features of Differential Amplifier?
What are advantage of Differential Amplifier ?
What is FeedBack amplifier ?
What are the Different FeedBack Toplogies ?
Give the advantages of Negative feedback amplifier.
What is an Oscillator ?
Distinguish between LC and RC Oscillator.
Give the application of oscillator.
What are the advantage and disadvantage of Crystal Oscillator.
Give the advantage and Disadvantage of RC Phase Shift Oscillator.
Give the advantage and Disadvantage of Colpitt's Oscillator.
Distinguish Crystal OSC and LC Oscillator.
Give the classification of Oscillation.
Define FeedBack Factor.
Draw Colpitt's Oscillator.
Compare Voltage Series,Voltage Shunt,Current Series and Current Shunt Feedback.
Define Input and Output Resistance of Diff Amplifier.
Define Input Bias Current and offset current of Diff Amp.
Draw the circuit for RC phase shift Oscillator.
State the frequency for RC phase shift oscillator.

Have Query? Please do drop your comments. | Unit 5 Two Marks

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Electronics Device and Circuits two mark questions of Anna University - Unit 5 questions

Tags: Anna univ,model question,papers,two mark questions,ec1,electronics and circuits
Anna University EC1 Unit 5 Two marks:
Electronics Devices and Circuits two mark questions for Unit 5 of Anna Univ ,chennai and all its affiliated college students can make use of it,get them now from below,Unit 4 is here

Define Clipper. What are its type.
What is clamper (with fig) and its applications.
What is astable Multivibrator (with fig)
What are the applications of multivibrator.
What are the applications of Schmitt trigger.
What is Bistable multivirator (with fig) ?
What do you mean by "Wave shapping"?
Differentiate +ve and -ve Clippers.
Define Intransic stand off Ratio.
Define Hysterests Voltage in Schmitt Trigger.
Give application of UJT.
Draw the circuit diagram for ULT Relaxation oscillator and its waveform.
Compare Mutivibrator and Oscillator.
Compare Astable,Monostable & Bistable Mutivibrator.
Compare Astable Multivibrator and Schmitt trigger.
Define UTP and LTP.
Define Multivibrator.
Determine the Equation for frequency for bistable multivibrator.
What is bistable multibrator (with fig).
Define Clapper.
Give application of clippers and clampers.
Define Symmetrical Clipper.
Define Biased Clipper.

Unit 4 two marks is here
Have Query ? Do drop your comments below..and click +1 .

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Aircraft General Engineering and Maintenance practice anna univ question papers - faq

Hi everyone,here is an prev year question paper for Anna University Students and those who are having Aircraft General Engineering paper,If you like it ,please do share it with your friends at facebook , Twitter ,Google Plus ,and subscribe fro Email ALerts.
B.E/B.Tech Degree Examination April/May 2010,
Sixth Semester,
Aeronautical Engineering,

AE 1003-AIRCRAFT GENERAL ENGINEERING AND MAINTENANCE PRACTICES

Answer all the questions.

Part-A
(10*2=20)
1. What is the purpose of jacking?
2. What type of equipment is used for towing the aircraft?
3. Enumerate the various ground power units used in aircraft maintenance.
4. What are the factors to make the cabin air contaminated with fumes?
5. What is shop safety?
6. State the precautions to be taken before starting electrical work in an aircraft.
7. Define 'inspection technique'.
8. Enumerate the various manuals in aircraft maintenance.
9. Differentiate between swaging and splicing.
10. Name the precision instruments used in an aircraft maintenance workshop.



Part-B
(5*16=80)

11.(a) Describe in detail the starting procedure of piston engine aircraft. (16)
Or
11.(b)(i) State the starting drill of a 'turbo jet' aircraft. (8)
(ii) Write down the refueling procedure being followed to refuel an aircraft. (8)

12.(a)(i) Describe the maintenance procedure of an air-conditioning system of an aircraft. (8)
(ii) What are the inspection and checks being carried out on pressurization of an aircraft? Explain.(8)
Or
12.(b) Write short notes on:
(i) Maintenance of aircraft hydraulic system.(8)
(ii) Maintenance of oil system. (8)

13.(a) Describe the safety aspects of the aero workshop. (16)
Or
13.(b)Discuss the environmental cleanliness of aircraft maintenance. (16)

14.(a) Write short notes on:
(i) Type certificate date sheets. (8)
(ii) Service bulletins. (8)
Or
14.(b)(i) What is a check list? (4)
(ii) Explain the special inspection carried out during "hard or overweight landing" and the aircraft had passed through "severe turbulence". (12)

15. (a) Explain the special tools and equipments used in an airplane maintenance shop. (16)
Or
15.(b)(i) Explain with the sketches the types threads and their advantages. (8)
(ii)Discuss in detail the various types of bearings used in aircraft systems. (8

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CS2302 Computer Networks Question Bank with Answers -Two marks

CS2302 Computer Networks Question Bank Dowload

Hi friends,hope you all fine,here is an another release of question bank for Computer Networks which comes for ECE in 6th Semester ,Anna University ,Chennai.


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For Download of Computer Networks Click here below
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TWO MARKS

UNIT-I

1. What are the three criteria necessary for an effective and efficient network? 

The most important criteria are performance, reliability and security. 

Performance of the network depends on number of users, type of transmission medium, and the capabilities of the connected h/w and the efficiency of the s/w. 

Reliability is measured by frequency of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from the failure and the network’s robustness in a catastrophe.

Security issues include protecting data from unauthorized access and viruses.

2. Group the OSI layers by function?

The seven layers of the OSI model belonging to three subgroups. 

Physical, data link and network layers are the network support layers; they deal with the physical aspects of moving data from one device to another. 

Session, presentation and application layers are the user support layers; they allow interoperability among unrelated software systems. 

The transport layer ensures end-to-end reliable data transmission.

3. What are header and trailers and how do they get added and removed? 

Each layer in the sending machine adds its own information to the message it receives from the layer just above it and passes the whole package to the layer just below it. This information is added in the form of headers or trailers. Headers are added to the message at the layers 6,5,4,3, and 2. A trailer is added at layer2. At the receiving machine, the headers or trailers attached to the data unit at the corresponding sending layers are removed, and actions appropriate to that layer are taken.

4. What are the features provided by layering?

Two nice features:

• It decomposes the problem of building a network into more manageable components.

• It provides a more modular design.

5. Why are protocols needed? 

In networks, communication occurs between the entities in different systems. Two entities cannot just send bit streams to each other and expect to be understood. For communication, the entities must agree on a protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication.

6. What are the two interfaces provided by protocols?

• Service interface 

• Peer interface

Service interface- defines the operations that local objects can perform on the protocol.

Peer interface- defines the form and meaning of messages exchanged between protocol peers to implement the communication service.

7. Mention the different physical media?

• Twisted pair(the wire that your phone connects to)

• Coaxial cable(the wire that your TV connects to)

• Optical fiber(the medium most commonly used for high-bandwidth, long-distance links)

• Space(the stuff that radio waves, microwaves and infra red beams propagate through)

8. Define Signals?

Signals are actually electromagnetic waves traveling at the speed of light. The speed of light is, however, medium dependent-electromagnetic waves traveling through copper and fiber do so at about two-thirds the speed of light in vacuum.

9. What is wave’s wavelength?

The distance between a pair of adjacent maxima or minima of a wave, typically measured in meters, is called wave’s wavelength.

10. Define Modulation?

Modulation -varying the frequency, amplitude or phase of the signal to effect the transmission of information. A simple example of modulation is to vary the power (amplitude) of a single wavelength.

11. Explain the two types of duplex?

• Full duplex-two bit streams can be simultaneously transmitted over the links at the same time, one going in each direction.

• Half duplex-it supports data flowing in only one direction at a time.

12. What is CODEC?

A device that encodes analog voice into a digital ISDN link is called a CODEC, for coder/decoder. 

13. What is spread spectrum and explain the two types of spread spectrum?

Spread spectrum is to Spread the signal over a wider frequency band than normal in such a way as to minimize the impact of interference from other devices.

• Frequency Hopping 

• Direct sequence

14. What are the different encoding techniques?

• NRZ

• NRZI

• Manchester

• 4B/5B

15. How does NRZ-L differ from NRZ-I? 

In the NRZ-L sequence, positive and negative voltages have specific meanings: positive for 0 and negative for 1. in the NRZ-I sequence, the voltages are meaningless.

Instead, the receiver looks for changes from one level to another as its basis for recognition of 1s. 

16. What are the responsibilities of data link layer? 

Specific responsibilities of data link layer include the following. a) Framing b) Physical addressing c) Flow control d) Error control e) Access control.

17. What are the ways to address the framing problem?

• Byte-Oriented Protocols(PPP)

• Bit-Oriented Protocols(HDLC)

• Clock-Based Framing(SONET)

18. Distinguish between peer-to-peer relationship and a primary-secondary relationship. peer -to- peer relationship?

All the devices share the link equally. 

Primary-secondary relationship: One device controls traffic and the others must transmit through it. 

19. Mention the types of errors and define the terms?

There are 2 types of errors 

• Single-bit error. 

• Burst-bit error. 

Single bit error: The term single bit error means that only one bit of a given data unit (such as byte character/data unit or packet) is changed from 1 to 0 or from 0 to 1.

Burst error: Means that 2 or more bits in the data unit have changed from 1 to 0 from 0 to 1.

20. List out the available detection methods. 

There are 4 types of redundancy checks are used in data communication. 

• Vertical redundancy checks (VRC).

• Longitudinal redundancy checks (LRC).

• Cyclic redundancy checks (CRC).

• Checksum. 

21. Write short notes on VRC. 

The most common and least expensive mechanism for error detection is the vertical redundancy check (VRC) often called a parity check. In this technique a redundant bit called a parity bit, is appended to every data unit so, that the total number of 0’s in the unit (including the parity bit) becomes even. 

22. Write short notes on LRC. 

In longitudinal redundancy check (LRC), a block of bits is divided into rows and a redundant row of bits is added to the whole block. 

23. Write short notes on CRC. 

The third and most powerful of the redundancy checking techniques is the cyclic redundancy checks (CRC) CRC is based on binary division. Here a sequence of redundant bits, called the CRC remainder is appended to the end of data unit. 

24. Write short notes on CRC checker. 

A CRC checker functions exactly like a generator. After receiving the data appended with the CRC it does the same modulo-2 division. If the remainder is all 0’s the CRC is dropped and the data accepted. Otherwise, the received stream of bits is discarded and the dates are resent. 

25. Define checksum. 

The error detection method used by the higher layer protocol is called checksum. Checksum is based on the concept of redundancy. 

26. What are the steps followed in checksum generator? 

The sender follows these steps a) the units are divided into k sections each of n bits. b) All sections are added together using 2’s complement to get the sum. c) The sum is complemented and become the checksum. d) The checksum is sent with the data. 

27. Mention the types of error correcting methods. 

There are 2 error-correcting methods.

• Single bit error correction 

• Burst error correction.

28. Write short notes on error correction?

It is the mechanism to correct the errors and it can be handled in 2 ways.

• When an error is discovered, the receiver can have the sender retransmit the entire data unit.

• A receiver can use an error correcting coder, which automatically corrects certain errors.

29. What is the purpose of hamming code? 

A hamming code can be designed to correct burst errors of certain lengths. So the simple strategy used by the hamming code to correct single bit errors must be redesigned to be applicable for multiple bit correction. 

30. What is redundancy? 

It is the error detecting mechanism, which means a shorter group of bits or extra bits may be appended at the destination of each unit. 

31. Define flow control?

Flow control refers to a set of procedures used to restrict the amount of data. The sender can send before waiting for acknowledgment. 

32. Mention the categories of flow control?

There are 2 methods have been developed to control flow of data across communication links. a) Stop and wait- send one from at a time. b) Sliding window- send several frames at a time. 

33. What is a buffer? 

Each receiving device has a block of memory called a buffer, reserved for storing incoming data until they are processed. 

UNIIT-II

1. What are the functions of MAC? 

MAC sub layer resolves the contention for the shared media. It contains synchronization, flag, flow and error control specifications necessary to move information from one place to another, as well as the physical address of the next station to receive and route a packet. 

2. What are the functions of LLC? 

The IEEE project 802 models take the structure of an HDLC frame and divides it into 2 sets of functions. One set contains the end user portion of the HDLC frame – the logical address, control information, and data. These functions are handled by the IEEE 802.2 logical link control (LLC) protocol. 

3. What is Ethernet?

Ethernet is a multiple-access network, meaning that a set of nodes send and receive frames over a shared link.

4. Define the term carrier sense in CSMA/CD?

All the nodes can distinguish between idle and a busy-link and “collision detect” means that a node listens as it transmits and can therefore detect when a frame it is transmitting has interfered (collided) with a frame transmitted by another node.

5. Define Repeater?

A repeater is a device that forwards digital signals, much like an amplifier forwards analog signals. However, no more than four repeaters may be positioned between any pairs of hosts, meaning that an Ethernet has a total reach of only 2,500m.

6. Define collision detection?

In Ethernet, all these hosts are competing for access to the same link, and as a consequence, they are said to be in the same collision detection.

7. Why Ethernet is said to be a I-persistent protocol?

An adaptor with a frame to send transmits with probability ‘1 ‘whenever a busy line goes idle.

8. What is exponential back off?

Once an adaptor has detected a collision and stopped its transmission, it waits a certain amount of time and tries again. Each time it tries to transmit but fails, the adaptor doubles the amount of time it waits before trying again. This strategy of doubling the delay interval between each transmission attempt is a general technique known as exponential back off.

9. What is token holding time (THT)?

It defines that how much data a given node is allowed to transmit each time it possesses the token or equivalently, how long a given node is allowed to hold the token.

10. What are the two classes of traffic in FDDI?

• Synchronous

• Asynchronous

11. What are the four prominent wireless technologies?

• Bluetooth

• Wi-Fi(formally known as 802.11)

• WiMAX(802.16)

• Third generation or 3G cellular wireless.

12. Define Bluetooth?

Bluetooth fills the niche of very short-range communication between mobile phones, PDAs, notebook computers, and other personal or peripheral devices. For example, Bluetooth can be used to connect mobile phones to a headset, or a notebook computer to a printer. 

13. What are the four steps involves in scanning?

1. The node sends a Probe frame.

2. All APs within reach reply with a Probe Response frame.

3. The node selects one of the access points, and sends that AP an Association Request frame.

4. The AP replies with an Association Response frame.

14. Explain the term handoff?

If the phone is involved in a call at the time , the call must be transferred to the new base station in what is called a hand off.

15. Define satphones?

Satphones use communication satellites as base stations, communicating on frequency bands that have been reserved internationally for satellite use.

16. How to mediate access to a shared link?

Ethernet,token ring, and several wireless protocols. Ethernet and token ring media access protocols have no central arbitrator of access. Media access in wireless networks is made more complicated by the fact that some nodes may be hidden from each other due to range limitations of radio transmission.

17. Define Aggregation points?

It collects and processes the data they receive from neighboring nodes, and then transmit the processed data. By processing the data incrementally, instead of forwarding all the raw data to the base station, the amount of traffic in the network is reduced.

18. Define Beacons?

Beacon to determine their own absolute locations based on GPS or manual configuration. The majority of nodes can then derive their absolute location by combining an estimate of their position relative to the beacons with the absolute location information provided by the beacons.

19. What is the use of Switch?

It is used to forward the packets between shared media LANs such as Ethernet. Such switches are sometimes known by the obvious name of LAN switches.

20. Explain Bridge?

It is a collection of LANs connected by one or more bridges is usually said to form an extended LAN. In their simplest variants, bridges simply accept LAN frames on their inputs and forward them out on all other outputs.

21. What is Spanning tree?

It is for the bridges to select the ports over which they will forward frames.

22. What are the three pieces of information in the configuration messages?

1. The ID for the bridge that is sending the message.

2. The ID for what the sending bridge believes to the root bridge.

3. The distance, measured in hops, from the sending bridge to the root bridge.

23. What is broadcast?

Broadcast is simple – each bridge forwards a frame with a destination broadcast address out on each active (selected) port other than the one on which the frame was received.

24. What is multicast?

It can be implemented with each host deciding for itself whether or not to accept the message.

25. How does a given bridge learn whether it should forward a multicast frame over a given port?

It learns exactly the same way that a bridge learns whether it should forward a unicast frame over a particular port- by observing the source addresses that it receives over that port.

26. What are the limitations of bridges?

• scale

• heterogeneity

UNIT-III

1. Define packet switching?

A packet switch is a device with several inputs and outputs leading to and from the hosts that the switch interconnects.

2. What is a virtual circuit? 

A logical circuit made between the sending and receiving computers. The connection is made after both computers do handshaking. After the connection, all packets follow the same route and arrive in sequence. 

3. What are data grams? 

In datagram approach, each packet is treated independently from all others. Even when one packet represents just a place of a multi packet transmission, the network treats it although it existed alone. Packets in this technology are referred to as datagram.

4. What is meant by switched virtual circuit? 

Switched virtual circuit format is comparable conceptually to dial-up line in circuit switching. In this method, a virtual circuit is created whenever it is needed and exits only for the duration of specific exchange.

5. What is meant by Permanent virtual circuit? 

Permanent virtual circuits are comparable to leased lines in circuit switching. In this method, the same virtual circuit is provided between two uses on a continuous basis. The circuit is dedicated to the specific uses. 

6. What are the properties in star topology?

• Even though a switch has a fixed number of inputs and outputs, which limits the number of hosts that can be connected to a single switch , large networks can be built by interconnecting a number of switches.

• We can connect switches to each other and to hosts using point-to point links, which typically means that we can build networks of large geographic scope.

7. What is VCI?

A Virtual Circuit Identifier that uniquely identifies the connection at this switch, and which will be carried inside the header of the packets that belongs to this connection.

8. What is hop-by-hop flow control?

Each node is ensured of having the buffers it needs to queue the packets that arrive on that circuit. This basic strategy is usually called hop-by-hop flow control.

9. Explain the term best-effort?

If something goes wrong and the packet gets lost, corrupted, misdelivered, or in any way fails to reach its intended destination, the network does nothing.

10. What is maximum transmission unit?

MTU- which is the largest IP datagram that it can carry in a frame .

11. Define Routing?

It is the process of building up the tables that allow thwe collect output for a packet to be determined.

12. Define ICMP? 

Internet Control Message Protocol is a collection of error messages that are sent back to the source host whenever a router or host is unable to process an IP datagram successfully

13. Write the keys for understanding the distance vector routing?

The three keys for understanding the algorithm are,

• Knowledge about the whole networks 

• Routing only to neighbors 

• Information sharing at regular intervals 

14. Write the keys for understanding the link state routing? 

The three keys for understanding the algorithm are, 

• Knowledge about the neighborhood. 

• Routing to all neighbors. 

• Information sharing when there is a range. 

15. How the packet cost referred in distance vector and link state routing? 

In distance vector routing, cost refer to hop count while in case of link state routing, cost is a weighted value based on a variety of factors such as security levels, traffic or the state of the link.

16. Define Reliable flooding?

It is the process of making sure that all the nodes participating in the routing protocol get a copy of the link state information from all the other nodes.

17. What are the features in OSPF?

• Authentication of routing messages.

• Additional hierarchy.

• Load balancing.

18. Define Subnetting?

Subnetting provides an elegantly simple way to reduce the total number of network numbers that are assigned. The idea is to take a single IP network number and allocate the IP address with that network to several physical networks, which are now referred to as subnets.

19. What are the different types of AS?

• Stub AS

• Multi homed AS

• Transit AS

20. What is an Area?

An Area is a set of routers that are administratively configured to exchange link-state information with each other. There is one special area- the backbone area, also known as area 0.

21. What is Source Specific Multicast? 

SSM , a receiving host specifies both a multicast group and a specific host .the receiving host would then receive multicast addressed to the specified group, but only if they are from the special sender.

22. What is meant by congestion? 

Congestion in a network occurs if user sends data into the network at a rate greater than that allowed by network resources. 

23. Why the congestion occurs in network?

Congestion occurs because the switches in a network have a limited buffer size to store arrived packets.

24. What are the rules of non boundary-level masking? 

• The bytes in the IP address that corresponds to 255 in the mask will be repeated in the sub network address 

• The bytes in the IP address that corresponds to 0 in the mask will change to 0 in the sub network address 

• For other bytes, use the bit-wise AND operator.

25. What is LSP?

In link state routing, a small packet containing routing information sent by a router to all other router by a packet called link state packet. 

UNIT-IV

1. Explain the main idea of UDP?

The basic idea is for a source process to send a message to a port and for the destination process to receive the message from a port.

2. What are the different fields in pseudo header?

• Protocol number

• Source IP address

• Destination IP addresses.

3. Define TCP?

TCP guarantees the reliable, in order delivery of a stream of bytes. It is a full-duplex protocol, meaning that each TCP connection supports a pair of byte streams, one flowing in each direction.

4. Define Congestion Control?

It involves preventing too much data from being injected into the network, thereby causing switches or links to become overloaded. Thus flow control is an end to an end issue, while congestion control is concerned with how hosts and networks interact.

5. State the two kinds of events trigger a state transition?

• A segment arrives from the peer.

• The local application process invokes an operation on TCP.

6. What is meant by segment? 

At the sending and receiving end of the transmission, TCP divides long transmissions into smaller data units and packages each into a frame called a segment. 

7. What is meant by segmentation? 

When the size of the data unit received from the upper layer is too long for the network layer datagram or data link layer frame to handle, the transport protocol divides it into smaller usable blocks. The dividing process is called segmentation. 

8. What is meant by Concatenation?

The size of the data unit belonging to single sessions are so small that several can fit together into a single datagram or frame, the transport protocol combines them into a single data unit. The combining process is called concatenation.

9. What is rate based design?

Rate- based design, in which the receiver tells the sender the rate-expressed in either bytes or packets per second – at which it is willing to accept incoming data.

10. Define Gateway. 

A device used to connect two separate networks that use different communication protocols.

11. What is meant by quality of service?

The quality of service defines a set of attributes related to the performance of the connection. For each connection, the user can request a particular attribute each service class is associated with a set of attributes. 

12. What are the two categories of QoS attributes? 

The two main categories are,

• User Oriented 

• Network Oriented 

13. List out the user related attributes? 

User related attributes are SCR – Sustainable Cell Rate PCR – Peak Cell Rate MCR- Minimum Cell Rate CVDT – Cell Variation Delay Tolerance.

14. What are the networks related attributes? 

The network related attributes are, Cell loss ratio (CLR) Cell transfer delay (CTD) Cell delay variation (CDV) Cell error ratio (CER). 

15. What is RED?

Random Early Detection in each router is programmed to monitor its own queue length and when it detects that congestion is imminent, to notify the source to adjust its congestion window.

16. What are the three events involved in the connection? 

For security, the transport layer may create a connection between the two end ports. A connection is a single logical path between the source and destination that is associated with all packets in a message. Creating a connection involves three steps: 

• Connection establishment 

• Data transfer

• Connection release

UNIT-V

1. What is the function of SMTP? 

The TCP/IP protocol supports electronic mail on the Internet is called Simple Mail Transfer (SMTP). It is a system for sending messages to other computer users based

on e-mail addresses. SMTP provides mail exchange between users on the same or different computers.

2. What is the difference between a user agent (UA) and a mail transfer agent (MTA)? 

The UA prepares the message, creates the envelope, and puts the message in the envelope. The MTA transfers the mail across the Internet.

3. How does MIME enhance SMTP?

MIME is a supplementary protocol that allows non-ASCII data to be sent through SMTP. MIME transforms non-ASCII data at the sender site to NVT ASCII data and deliverers it to the client SMTP to be sent through the Internet. The server SMTP at the receiving side receives the NVT ASCII data and delivers it to MIME to be transformed back to the original data. 

4. Why is an application such as POP needed for electronic messaging? 

Workstations interact with the SMTP host, which receives the mail on behalf of every host in the organization, to retrieve messages by using a client-server protocol such as Post Office Protocol, version 3(POP3). Although POP3 is used to download messages from the server, the SMTP client still needed on the desktop to forward messages from the workstation user to its SMTP mail server. 

5. Give the format of HTTP request message?

6. What is the purpose of Domain Name System? 

Domain Name System can map a name to an address and conversely an address to name. 

7. Discuss the three main division of the domain name space. 

Domain name space is divided into three different sections: generic domains, country domains & inverse domain. 

Generic domain: Define registered hosts according to their generic behavior, uses generic suffixes. 

Country domain: Uses two characters to identify a country as the last suffix. 

Inverse domain: Finds the domain name given the IP address. 

8. Discuss the TCP connections needed in FTP. 

FTP establishes two connections between the hosts. One connection is used for data transfer, the other for control information. The control connection uses very simple rules of communication. The data connection needs more complex rules due to the variety of data types transferred. 

9. Discuss the basic model of FTP. 

The client has three components: the user interface, the client control process, and the client data transfer process. The server has two components: the server control process and the server data transfer process. The control connection is made between the control processes. The data connection is made between the data transfer processes. 

10. Name four factors needed for a secure network?

Privacy: The sender and the receiver expect confidentiality. 

Authentication: The receiver is sure of the sender’s identity and that an imposter has not sent the message. 

Integrity: The data must arrive at the receiver exactly as it was sent. 

Non-Reputation: The receiver must able to prove that a received message came from a specific sender. 

11. How is a secret key different from public key? 

In secret key, the same key is used by both parties. The sender uses this key and an encryption algorithm to encrypt data; the receiver uses the same key and the corresponding decryption algorithm to decrypt the data. In public key, there are two keys: a private key and a public key. The private key is kept by the receiver. The public key is announced to the public. 

12. What is a digital signature? 

Digital signature is a method to authenticate the sender of a message. It is similar to that of signing transactions documents when you do business with a bank. In network transactions, you can create an equivalent of an electronic or digital signature by the way you send data.

13. What are the advantages & disadvantages of public key encryption?

Advantages: 

a) Remove the restriction of a shared secret key between two entities. Here each entity can create a pair of keys, keep the private one, and publicly distribute the other one.

b) The no. of keys needed is reduced tremendously. For one million users to communicate, only two million keys are needed. 

Disadvantage: 

If you use large numbers the method to be effective. Calculating the cipher text using the long keys takes a lot of time. So it is not recommended for large amounts of text. 

14. What are the advantages & disadvantages of secret key encryption? 

Advantage: 

Secret Key algorithms are efficient: it takes less time to encrypt a message. The reason is that the key is usually smaller. So it is used to encrypt or decrypt long messages. 

Disadvantages: 

a) Each pair of users must have a secret key. If N people in world want to use this method, there needs to be N (N-1)/2 secret keys. For one million people to communicate, a half-billion secret keys are needed. 

b) The distribution of the keys between two parties can be difficult. 

15. Define permutation.

Permutation is transposition in bit level. 

Straight permutation: The no. of bits in the input and output are preserved. 

Compressed permutation: The no. of bits is reduced (some of the bits are dropped). 

Expanded permutation: The no. of bits is increased (some bits are repeated).

16. Define substitution & transposition encryption?

. Substitution: A character level encryption in which each character is replaced by another character in the set. 

Transposition: A Character level encryption in which the characters retain their plaintext but the position of the character changes.

17. Define CGI?

. CGI is a standard for communication between HTTP servers and executable programs. It is used in crating dynamic documents. 

18. What are the requests messages support SNMP and explain it?

• GET

• SET

The former is used to retrieve a piece of state from some node and the latter is used to store a new piece of state in some node.

19. Define PGP?

Pretty Good Privacy is used to provide security for electronic mail. It provides authentication, confidentiality, data integrity, and non repudiation.

20. Define SSH?

Secure Shell is used to provide a remote login, and used to remotely execute commands and transfer files and also provide strong client/server authentication / message integrity.

21. Give the format of HTTP response message?

PART B

UNIT I

1. Explain in detail the error detection and error corrections.(UQ)

2. Discuss in detail about the layers of OSI model. (UQ)

3. Discuss in detail about HDLC.

4. Discuss in detail about SONET.

5. Explain the different approaches of framing in detail.

6. Write the Sliding Window Algorithm and explain it in detail.

7. Compare Stop and Wait ARQ scheme with sliding window ARQ scheme.

8. Write in detail about the flow control mechanisms.

UNIT II

1. Name the four basic network topologies and explain them giving all the relevant features.(UQ)

2. Explain the functioning of wireless LAN in detail.(UQ)

3. Explain Ethernet in detail.

4. Discuss the frame format of token ring in detail.

5. Differentiate FDDI from token ring

6. Write in detail about Resilient Packet Ring.

7. Write short notes on WI-Fi,Wi-Max.

8. Write short notes on Cellphone technologies.

UNIT III

1. Write notes on the following(UQ)

(i) Internet protocol. 

(ii) Routers. 

2. Discuss in detail the various aspects of IPV6. (UQ)

3. What are the different approaches in Packet Switching.Explain them in detail.

4. Write in detail about bridges.

5. Discuss the spanning tree algorithm in detail.

6. What are the limitations of bridges.

7. Explain in detail the ATM cell format.

8. Explain about the different AAL protocols. 

9. Discuss DHCP in detail.

10. Explain Distance Vector routing in detail.

11. Explain OSPF in detail.

12. Discuss RIP in detail.

13. Problems in subnetting.

14. Write short notes on the following

i. Broadcasting

ii. Multicasting

iii. ARP

iv. RARP

UNIT IV

1. With neat architecture, explain TCP in detail. 

2. Explain adaptive flow control in detail and its uses. 

3. With neat architecture, explain UDP in detail.

4. Discuss the different Queuing Discipline in detail.

5. Explain the Congestion Avoidance techniques in detail.

6. Explain TCP Congestion control techniques in detail.

7. Explain how QoS is provided through Integrated Services.

8. Explain how QoS is provided through Differentiated Services.

UNIT V

1. Explain the SMTP and HTTP. Give their uses, state strengths and weaknesses. 

2. Explain the role of a DNS on a computer network. 

3. Explain Email protocols in detail.

4. Discuss FTP in detail.

5. Discuss SNMP and Telnet in detail.

6. Write short notes on

i. PGP

ii. SSH

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